AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 2.5 Year 8610 Human Development and Learning Assignment 2

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 2.5 Year 8610 Human Development and Learning Assignment 2

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year or 2.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

• BEd 1.5 Year Third Semester
• BEd 2.5 Year Third Semester

Q.1 Discuss different dimensions of emotional development .Design two class room activities
to promote emotional development of children.

Five Dimensions of Emotion

Explanations > Emotions > Five Dimensions of Emotion

Pleasure | Focus | Direction | Intensity | Arousal | So what

How do you measure or classify emotions? Here are four variables scales along which emotions can be placed. When you classify emotions (or anything), you start to make more sense of them, aiding communication, discussion and general understanding. From this can also stem interventions, where you use your knowledge to deliberately change emotions.

Pleasure (positive, negative)

Emotions can be positive, pleasant and giving good feelings. Emotions may also be negative, unpleasant and cause discomfort. Any emotion can be placed on a scale between extreme pleasure and extreme discomfort, with a zero point between where neither positive nor negative feelings are experienced (such as the way surprise is often experienced).

While we may wonder about the value of negative emotions, they are designed by evolution to keep us alive. For example fear helps us avoid danger while anger helps us defend ourselves. Positive emotions also have evolutionary benefit, such as love that bonds people together and pride that drives learning.

Aristotle first talked about pleasure and pain as fundamental drivers and these have been taken up many times since. The basic effect is that we move towards pleasure and away from pain. Many basic persuasive methods are based on negative emotions, but can be ineffective or have problematic side-effects, such as when people coerced into action take subtle revenge on those who seek to control them.

Positive emotions

Happiness, liking, respect, hope,contentment

Negative emotions
Sadness, anger, fear, shame, disgust

Focus (internal, external)

Emotions may have a primary focus inside us or outside us, for example being about ourselves or about the outer world. Sometimes these are very much about one or the other and at other times they may be a bit of both. A highly outward emotion is anger, as we project bad feelings toward others. A highly inward one is contentment, for example in the way a meditating person feels.

People who are more introverted may have more internally focused emotions, while extraverts spend more of their time and emotions in the outer world, particularly with other people. When we interact with others, we have external emotions about them. Their actions and other external events can lead to thoughts and feelings that can become increasingly internal, such as when we think about what we might do and how we may feel about this.

Internal emotions

Shame, contentment, surprise, pride

External emotions
Anger, fear, liking, disgust

Direction (attraction, repulsion)

Emotions often have direction, bringing us together with things or pushing us away from them. For example love is an attractive emotion, while fear is repulsive. We can reduce distance by moving ourselves towards object of interest or bringing it close. Likewise we can act on repulsion by pushing it away or removing ourselves from its proximity.

Direction is often about other people, such as when we like or dislike them. It can also be about things and situations of danger or attraction. Greed, for example, may pull us towards money, while fear may push us away from a dangerous place. We can even be attracted or repulsed by an idea, such of politicians.

Inward emotions

Pride, shame, contentment, admiration, embarrassment

Outward emotions

Anger, fear, disgust, contempt

Intensity

Intensity is about how strongly we feel emotions. This is a unit-polar dimension, as it can range from close to zero, for example when we feel flat or just a bit irritated, to very intense, such as feelings of grief or extreme anger. Pleasure and Locus are bi-polar scales as they have two poles with a 'zero' in between. Many emotions have words for high and low intensity, such as the more intense 'anger' and the less intense 'irritation'.

Intensity can be highly energizing, and it can also be paralyzing. In extreme, the strength of emotion can overcome us, blotting out our external senses as we focus on the inner experience. Negative intensity can be dangerous and lead us into actions we later regret, such as when hate leads to murder. Strongly positive emotions can be wonderful, such as the joy of new love.

Low intensity emotions

Irritation, contentment, mild surprise, dislike

High intensity emotions

Hate, grief, joy, disgust

Arousal

Arousal is about activation, the energy and motivation that the emotions give us towards taking action. It is unit-polar and similar to intensity, but it is not the same. You can experience an intense emotion, such as joy, but not be motivated to act. Likewise, arousing emotions such as curiosity may not be particularly intense.

Lower arousal emotions lead to inaction, perhaps because we are feeling flat, with low intensity, or because the emotion has an inward direction. Higher arousal emotions lead either to external action or intense thinking, such as when we pay close attention to a threat or item of personal interest. We may not seem to be doing much, but our minds are working overtime.

The states of high and low arousal are also known as hot and cold. This temperature metaphor reflects how we often feel. An aroused person may be red-faced, reflecting the activation of their body.

Low arousal emotions

Depression, contentment

High arousal emotions
Anger, curiosity, fear

Strategies that might help.

Strategy 1: Create a consistent, but play-based, classroom structure

According to the American Academy of Paediatrics, “Play is integral to the academic environment. It ensures that the school setting attends to the social and emotional development of children as well as their cognitive development.” TKCalifornia notes that one of the most powerful ways to nurture social or emotional development in the classroom is by establishing routines that are fun at the core. For instance, using songs, chants or games during challenging times—such as during periods where children must wait in line or take turns—can minimize negative behaviors, giving teachers an opportunity to reinforce positive ones.

Strategy 2: Teach—and reinforce—empathy

Helping a child understand people’s behaviors, feelings and thoughts is the first step toward teaching them how to respect and relate to others. Teachers can model empathy by comforting a child who is upset or by verbally acknowledging students’ feelings, but they can also incorporate these lessons into existing curricula.

For example, when reading a book, ask children to identify characters’ emotions and discuss how other characters or events have contributed to their feelings. You may also choose to role play with puppets or with the children themselves. By giving children a broader emotional vocabulary, and by emphasizing that everyone has feelings, teachers can hone or reinforce students’ empathy.

Strategy 3: Actively teach conflict resolution

When children begin to fight or argue—as they often do—it is easy for teachers to step in as mediators and resolve the conflict themselves. It might be more beneficial in the long run, however, if they use these opportunities to teach children how to resolve conflict themselves. For instance, if two children are fighting over a toy, rather than telling them to take turns and setting a timer, ask them how they could go about sharing the item. Talk through solutions. Educators can also model problem-solving skills throughout the day. For example, allow children to vote for the book they want to read, or encourage them to take turns leading their peers during transition periods.
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Q.2 Summaries the main ideas presented in theories of moral development why this knowledge is important for an ECE Teacher?

Answer:

Morality is a system of beliefs about what is right and good compared to what is wrong or bad. Moral development refers to changes in moral beliefs as a person grows older and gains maturity. Moral beliefs are related to, but not identical with, moral behavior: it is possible to know the right thing to do, but not actually do it. It is also not the same as knowledge of social conventions, which are arbitrary customs needed for the smooth operation of society. Social conventions may have a moral element, but they have a primarily practical purpose. Conventionally, for example, motor vehicles all keep to the same side of the street (to the right in the United States, to the left in Great Britain). The convention allows for smooth, accident-free flow of traffic. But following the convention also has a moral element, because an individual who chooses to drive on the wrong side of the street can cause injuries or even death. In this sense, choosing the wrong side of the street is wrong morally, though

the choice is also unconventional.

When it comes to schooling and teaching, moral choices are not restricted to occasional dramatic incidents, but are woven into almost every aspect of classroom life. Imagine this simple example. Suppose that you are teaching, reading to a small group of second-graders, and the students are taking turns reading a story out loud. Should you give every student the same amount of time to read, even though some might benefit from having additional time? Or should you give more time to the students who need extra help, even if doing so bores classmates and deprives others of equal shares of “floor time”? Which option is more fair, and which is more considerate? Simple dilemmas like this happen every day at all grade levels simply because students are diverse, and because class time and a teacher’s energy are finite.

Morality of justice is about human rights—or more specifically, about respect for fairness, impartiality, equality, and individuals’ independence. A morality of care, on the other hand, is about human responsibilities—more specifically, about caring for others, showing consideration for individuals’ needs, and interdependence among individuals. Students and teachers need both forms of morality. In the next sections therefore we explain a major example of each type of developmental theory, beginning with the morality of justice.

Preconventional justice: obedience and mutual advantage

The pre-convention level of moral development coincides approximately with the preschool period of life and with Piaget’s pre-operational period of thinking. At this age the child is still relatively self-cantered and insensitive to the moral effects of actions on others. The result is a somewhat short-sighted orientation to morality. Initially (Kohlberg’s Stage 1), the child adopts an ethics of obedience and punishment—a sort of “morality of keeping out of trouble.” The rightness and wrongness of actions is determined by whether actions are rewarded or punished by authorities such as parents or teachers. If helping yourself to a cookie brings affectionate smiles from adults, then taking the cookie is considered morally “good.” If it brings scolding instead, then it is morally “bad.” The child does not think about why an action might be praised or scolded; in fact, says Kohlberg, he would be incapable at Stage 1 of considering the reasons even if adults offered them.

Eventually the child learns not only to respond to positive consequences, but also learns how to produce them by exchanging favours with others. The new ability creates Stage 2, an ethics of market exchange. At this stage the morally “good” action is one that favours not only the child, but another person directly involved. A “bad” action is one that lacks this reciprocity. If trading the sandwich from your lunch for the cookies in your friend’s lunch is mutually agreeable, then the trade is morally good; otherwise it is not. This perspective introduces a type of fairness into the child’s thinking for the first time. But it still ignores the larger context of actions—the effects on people not present or directly involved. In Stage 2, for example, it would also be considered morally “good” to pay a classmate to do another student’s homework—or even to avoid bullying or to provide sexual favours—provided that both parties regard the arrangement as being fair.

Conventional justice: conformity to peers and society

As children move into the school years, their lives expand to include a larger number and range of peers and (eventually) of the community as a whole. The change leads to conventional morality, which are beliefs based on what this larger array of people agree on—hence Kohlberg’s use of the term “conventional.” At first, in Stage 3, the child’s reference group are immediate peers, so Stage 3 is sometimes called the ethics of peer opinion. If peers believe, for example, that it is morally good to behave politely with as many people as possible, then the child is likely to agree with the group and to regard politeness as not merely an arbitrary social convention, but a moral “good.” This approach to moral belief is a bit more stable than the approach in Stage 2, because the child is taking into account the reactions not just of one other person, but of many. But it can still lead astray if the group

settles on beliefs that adults consider morally wrong, like “Shop lifting for candy bars is fun and desirable.”

Eventually, as the child becomes a youth and the social world expands even more, he or she acquires even larger numbers of peers and friends. He or she is therefore more likely to encounter disagreements about ethical issues and beliefs. Resolving the complexities lead to Stage 4, the ethics of law and order, in which the young person increasingly frames moral beliefs in terms of what the majority of society believes. Now, an action is morally good if it is legal or at least customarily approved by most people, including people whom the youth does not know personally. This attitude leads to an even more stable set of principles than in the previous stage, though it is still not immune from ethical mistakes. A community or society may agree, for example, that people of a certain race should be treated with deliberate disrespect or that a factory owner is entitled to dump waste water into a commonly shared lake or river. To develop ethical principles that reliably avoid mistakes like these require further stages of moral development.

A Passion for Early Childhood Education

Education is not a field that just anyone can go into and be both successful and fulfilled in their career. Prospective educators must have a passion for teaching young children. This enthusiasm should reach beyond playground fun and focus on helping young children meet developmental milestones.

Patience and a Sense of Humour

Young children are full of energy and curiosity. Early childhood educators should bring a great deal of patience and a dose of humor to the classroom to keep children engaged in the day’s lessons.

Creativity

Reaching children and helping them learn requires creativity while guiding students in connecting the dots and relating lessons to their current stage of development. Early childhood educators should be able to adapt lesson plans to concepts that children can understand. Incorporating learning games and other teaching techniques can keep children engaged and focused throughout the day.

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Communication Skills

Children are sponges at this early age, but they are also new to learning. Early childhood educators must be able to communicate with young learners on their level, including being able to break complex subjects into easily digestible pieces. They must be able offer details about classroom progress to parents so they are aware of their child’s performance and achievement level. Communication helps parents identify teachable moments in everyday situations and boost their child’s kindergarten readiness.

Flexibility

Even the best early childhood teachers will go off course throughout the day due to unforeseen circumstances or learning hiccups. While creating a lesson plan to outline important concepts that should be addressed in curriculum is important for any classroom, even the best plans sometimes don’t happen the way we hope. Being flexible can help lessen stress levels and keep things on track.

Understanding Diversity

Children come from different home environments and backgrounds, which can lead to different learning styles. Early childhood teachers should be able to accept these differences and be willing to work with varied learning styles to ensure all students leave the classroom having achieved the identified learning objectives.
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Q.3 Elaborate the development of language in elemantery school years.
Answer:

Language development

The best way to encourage your child’s speech and language development is to do lots of talking together about things that interest your child. It’s all about following your child’s lead as he shows you what he’s interested in by waving, pointing, babbling or using words.

Talking with your child

Talk to your baby and treat her as a talker, beginning in her first year. When you finish talking, give her a turn and wait for her to respond – she will! And when your child starts babbling, copy your baby and babble back. You’ll probably find that she babbles back to you again. This keeps the talking going and is great fun.

Responding to your child

As your baby grows up and starts to use gestures, you can respond to his attempts to communicate. For example, if your child shakes his head, respond as if he’s saying ‘No’. If he points to a toy, respond as if your child is saying, ‘Can I have that?’ or ‘I like that’.

When your child starts using words, you can repeat and build on what your child says. For example, if she says, ‘Apple,’ you can say, ‘You want a red apple?’

When you tune in and respond to your child, it encourages him to communicate. You’ll be

amazed at how much he has to say, even before his words develop.

Everyday talking

Talking about what’s happening in your daily life together is a great way to increase the number of words your child hears. You can talk about things that make sense to her, like what she’s seeing or doing – the key is to use lots of different words and in different contexts. For example, you can talk to your child about an orange tree and about cutting up an orange for lunch. This helps your child learn the meaning and function of words in her world.

It doesn’t matter if your child doesn’t understand, because his understanding will grow as he develops.

From the time your child starts telling stories, encourage her to talk about things in the past and in the future. For example, at the end of the day, you could talk about plans for the next day, by making a shopping list together or deciding what to take on a visit to grandma. Or when you come home from an outing together, you could talk about it.

Reading with your baby

Read and share lots of books with your child, and read more complex books as he grows. Reading lets your child hear words in different contexts, which helps him learn the meaning and function of words.

Linking what’s in the book to what’s happening in your child’s life is a good way to get your child talking. You can also encourage talking by chatting about interesting pictures in the books you read with your child.

When you read aloud with your child, you can point to words as you say them. This shows your child the link between written and spoken words, and helps her learn that words are distinct parts of language. These are important concepts for developing literacy.

2-3 years

Your child can speak in longer, more complex sentences now, and is getting better at saying words correctly. He might play and talk at the same time. Strangers can probably understand most of what he says by the time he’s three.

3-5 years

You can expect longer, more abstract and more complex conversations now. For example, your child might say things like, ‘Will I grow into a watermelon because I swallowed the watermelon seed?’

Your child will probably also want to talk about a wide range of topics, and her vocabulary will keep growing. She might show that she understands the basic rules of grammar, as she experiments with more complex sentences that have words like ‘because’, ‘if’, ‘so’ or ‘when’. And you can look forward to some entertaining stories too.

5-8 years

During the early school years, your child will learn more words and start to understand how the sounds within language work together. He’ll also become a better storyteller, as he learns to put words together in different ways and build different types of sentences. These skills also let him share ideas and opinions. By eight years, he’ll be able to have adult-like conversations.

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Q.4 what is cognition? Explain different theories of cognition.
Answer:

Cognitive psychology is the field of psychology dedicated to examining how people think. It attempts to explain how and why we think the way we do by studying the interactions among human thinking, emotion, creativity, language, and problem solving, in addition to other cognitive processes. Cognitive psychologists strive to determine and measure different types of intelligence, why some people are better at problem solving than others, and how emotional intelligence affects success in the workplace, among countless other topics. They also sometimes focus on how we organize thoughts and information gathered from our environments into meaningful categories of thought, which will be discussed later.

Social Cognitive Theory

In the Social Cognitive Theory, we are considering 3 variables:

• Behavioural factors
• Evironmental factors (extrinsic)
• Personal factors (intrinsic)

These 3 variables in Social Cognitive Theory are said to be interrelated with each other, causing learning to occur. An individual’s personal experience can converge with the behavioural determinants and the environmental factors.

Social Cognitive Theory Illustration (Perjures, 2002)

In the person-environment interaction, human beliefs, ideas and cognitive competencies are modified by external factors such as a supportive parent, stressful environment or a hot climate. In the person-behavior interaction, the cognitive processes of a person affect his behavior; likewise, performance of such behavior can modify the way he thinks. Lastly, the environment-behavior interaction, external factors can alter the way you display the behavior. Also, your behavior can affect and modify your environment. This model clearly implies that for effective and positive learning to occur an individual should have positive personal characteristics, exhibit appropriate behavior and stay in a supportive environment.

In addition, Social Cognitive Theory states that new experiences are to be evaluated by the learner by means of analyzing his past experiences with the same determinants. Learning, therefore, is a result of a thorough evaluation of the present experience versus the past.

1. Observational Learning

learning from other people by means of observing them is an effective way of gaining knowledge and altering behavior.

2. Reproduction

the process wherein there is an aim to effectively increase the repeating of a behavior by means of putting the individual in a comfortable environment with readily accessible materials to motivate him to retain the new knowledge and behavior learned and practice them.

3. Self-efficacy

the course wherein the learner improves his newly learned knowledge or behavior by putting it into practice.

4. Emotional coping

good coping mechanisms against stressful environment and negative personal characteristics can lead to effective learning, especially in adults.

5. Self-regulatory capability

ability to control behavior even within an unfavourable environment.

B. Cognitive Behavioural Theory

Cognitive Behavioural Theory describes the role of cognition (knowing) to determining and predicting the behavioural pattern of an individual. This theory was developed by Aaron Beck.

The Cognitive Behavioural Theory says that individuals tend to form self-concepts that affect the behavior they display. These concepts can be positive or negative and can be affected by a person’s environment.

genitive Behavioural Theory further explains human behavior and learning using the cognitive triad. This triad includes negative thoughts about:

1. The self (i.e., I am rubbish)
2. The world/environment (i.e., the world is irrational)
3. The future (i.e., my future is doomed)

Concrete operational

Children are much less egocentric in the concrete operational stage. It falls between the ages of 7 to 11 years old and is marked by more logical and methodical manipulation of symbols.
The main goal at this stage is for a child to start working things out inside their head. This is called operational thought, and it allows kids to solve problems without physically encountering things in the real world.

Formal operational

Children 11 years old and older fall into Piaget’s formal operational stage. A milestone of this period is using symbols to understand abstract concepts. Not only that, but older kids and adults can also think about multiple variables and come up with hypotheses based on previous knowledge.

Piaget believed that people of all ages developed intellectually. But he also believed that once a person reaches the formal operational stage, it’s more about building upon knowledge, not changing how it’s acquired or understood.

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Q.5 Explain with example what is meant by readiness for learning?
Answer:

All children can learn and their mental development, seen by the changes in ability that they show from infancy to adulthood, is due to their immense capacity for learning. The stage at which children are thought to be learning ready and so ready to benefit from formal or academic education, usually around the age of 6 or 7 years, is decided by normal mental and physical development.

At around this age, they should have reached a stage of being ‘ready’ for school. The concept of ‘learning readinesses includes the idea of ‘school readiness’ but the two terms are not identical in meaning. A child may pass a school readiness test but not be learning ready.

Why?

It is because school readiness tests do not include the child’s level of neurodevelopment. This means that they don’t consider how the child’s brain and nervous system has developed and whether the child’s various sensory motor systems are functioning well enough to support learning. School readiness tests look for signs that certain abilities have developed that are needed to perform in the classroom. These include the ability to sit still and follow instructions, manipulate a pencil, get along with peers and show certain perceptual and intellectual skills. Perceptual skills include recognizing and being able to name colours, letters and numbers. Intellectual skills include knowing one’s home address, and so on.

Many children show these abilities but the foundation of neurological systems on which these abilities rest is shaky, and they may start showing problems in school either within a short period of time or even after two or more years. Some children may seem to do well academically but their lack of learning readiness will mean that they have to use up a great deal more energy than should be necessary to cope with the behaviour and learning expected by their schools and communities.

To summarise, in order to be able to learn easily and cope with the demands of the classroom and life in general, children need to have reached a level of brain and body development that will support their functioning. This will depend on how well they have developed certain systems in their brains and bodies that are needed to support their learning.

A system can be described as a number of separate parts that work together in order to get something done. For example, a bicycle is a collection of items that are needed in order to provide transport. It needs a frame, saddle, handlebars, pedals, chain, wheels, tyres and brakes. If all those parts are in good working order, the bicycle will work well. Think of what would happen if one or more of these components are not working as well as they should. A tyre that is slightly flat will mean that one has to work a lot harder to get the bicycle to move quickly. It will place stress on the wheel itself, which might in turn affect the stability of the frame, the way the brakes work, and so on. In other words, the inefficient functioning of one of the parts of a system will have a ripple effect throughout the whole system.

In the same way, every child has certain systems that support his or her ability to learn easily. These include the components of the sensory-motor system, such as vision, hearing, touch, smell, balance and sense of body in space. If one or more of these are not functioning as they should, the child will be handicapped in that learning becomes difficult and stressful and seemingly simple tasks cause tiredness and distress.

• Delay in reaching any milestones or skipping milestones, such as crawling
• Difficulty learning to ride a bicycle
• Delay in learning to get dressed independently and tying buttons or shoelaces
• Clumsiness
• Problems with sleeping, being restless in bed, preferring to have someone sleep with him
• Difficulty keeping upright without slouching, leaning on furniture, and so on
• Tendency to chew on collars and necklines, pencils and anything else!
• Constant movement – always on the go and sitting in a chair is torture for them
• Challenged by gross motor and/or fine motor activities
• Signs of visual difficulties – holds head at a strange angle or close to page when colouring or looking at books
• Seems to have trouble listening and is easily distracted by sounds. Might also make his own irritating noises

Any of these signs (and more) could be clues that the brain hasn’t developed as it should or that the sensory systems are immature. This in turn means that faulty foundations will affect higher level skills – those demanded by school. Simply put, the child is not yet learning ready.

Example

Varying Degrees of Readiness

Imagine you are sitting in an economics class when suddenly, the professor announces that the final grade will be based on the result of a basketball tournament you will have in lieu of class next week. How prepared are you? Are your classmates more or less prepared than you are? Most likely, there would be a mix of people who were up for the challenge and others that lack the knowledge, skill, or athletic ability to play. Similarly, some students in your class are well-prepared for learning to balance chemical equations, while others have not yet acquired the academic readiness to learn that skill. Academic readiness is the degree to which a student is prepared for a learning experience. Let's find out more about factors that impact academic readiness and ways that teachers can assess academic readiness.

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