AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8629 Laboratory Organization Management and Safety Methods Assignment 1

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8629 Laboratory Organization Management and Safety Methods Assignment 1

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Q.1 What do you know about laboratory design? What are requirements for designing a science laboratory?
Answer:

Designing a Successful School Science Lab

With the push for higher state and national science standards, many schools are seeking means to update their antiquated science lab equipment and propel their school science laboratories into the 21st century. While traditional science lab furniture, Bunsen burners, and beakers are not passé, modern school science lab designs feature:

• SMART Boards
• Digital Whiteboards
• LCD projectors
• Utility islands with gas, water, electrical, and data outlets
• Approved safety equipment
• Epoxy-top tables with chemical-resistant surfaces
• Mobile teacher demonstration stations
• Modular student lab workstations allowing for small group collaboration and learning
• Maximized storage space solutions
• Laboratories which can be used interchangeably for general science, chemistry, physics, biology, and physiology classes.

Laboratory should have :

1. Flexibility

Effortlessly and efficiently dividing science lessons between practical and theoretical learning helps students apply their knowledge more effectively. A theoretical understanding of scientific principles can aid students’ participation in practical learning and intelligent classroom design can strongly support this.

2. Environmental Factors

It is not merely the content of the lessons or how it is being delivered which helps improve students’ understanding of a subject, but also the environment in which they are taught. The University of Salford are continuing research which so far highlights that environmental factors affect the progress of 73% of students. Measuring students from 34 classrooms over one academic year, the research team discovered that learning progress can be affected by as much as 25% by the environmental factors of a classroom. Our team carefully considers all environmental factors when designing a laboratory including the use of natural light, acoustics, storage and colour.

3. Student Positioning

Since the Victorian era, the standard seating arrangement in the classroom has been row after row of students facing a tutor at the head of a long, narrow classroom. Despite curriculum’s, technologies and even scientific understanding having changed dramatically in the past 150 years, the classroom set-up largely remains the same. Classrooms must adapt to support a range of different learning activities to help encourage interaction and collaboration.

4. Use of Space

Sufficient circulation space in classrooms is important when maintaining a safe working environment. The arrangement of fixed and loose furnishings needs to afford teachers and students the freedom to circulate easily around the classroom. This freedom of movement can help improve the interaction between all parties to ensure a safer and more accessible lab which helps to promote inspiration.

BOX 3.4 Examples of Large-to Small-Scale Design Considerations

1. Building and site issues

• Renovation versus new construction
• Building site

2. Floor planning

• Adjacencies
• Traffic flow

3. Laboratory configuration

• Individual laboratories
• Support spaces

4. Building services and structure

Operation costs, they are critical to the functionality of the facility and the safety of the building users and surrounding community. Users' familiarity with alternative approaches to specific laboratory design issues will most likely lead to a more efficient, cost-effective, flexible, safe, and environmentally appropriate laboratory facility. Although an experienced and knowledgeable design professional can assist in the identification of design issues to consider and can evaluate appropriate alternative approaches to laboratory design, this is not always the case. Even when an experienced and knowledgeable design professional is available, it is advantageous for the user representative and the client team to become informed consumers of the design professional's services. 

The design considerations presented here range from those requiring large-scale decisions, such as constructing a new building versus renovating an existing building, through intermediate-scale options such as floor planning, to small-scale issues, such as laboratory configuration. They also include considerations related to structural as well as mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) systems (Box 3.4). Administrative policies should be considered throughout, since many institutions have defined practices or standards that affect many design issues. Many of the design considerations are interdependent. Decisions regarding larger-scale issues, which should be made early in the design process, can limit or preclude many of the smaller-scale design decisions. Knowledge of these dependencies, often provided by the laboratory design professional to the client team, will help streamline the design process and maximize the potential for a cost-effective and optimum design solution is acceptable as an alternative in laboratory design may differ according to scientific discipline. This report focuses primarily on chemical, biochemical, and molecular biology laboratories, but it is also relevant to laboratories in related disciplines such as food science, agricultural science, pharmacy, materials science, some engineering sciences, and physics. However, the requirements of highly specialized laboratories, such as animal facilities, are covered in other guides such as the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (NRC, 1996). Richmond and McKinney (1993) provides design details for laboratories using identifiable infectious agents. 

Acceptable design alternatives also differ between organizations on the basis of their goals, geographic location, governing authorities, and other factors, The goals for a new research laboratory building o renovation should be determined in the early stages of planning as they will influence the development of appropriate design alternatives. Geographic location may influence the acceptability of a particular design alternative; for example, the more stringent seismic requirements of building codes in southern California, as compared to New Jersey, will influence the overall height of the laboratory building in California both because of the increased structural costs associated with the applicable building codes and because of building height restrictions. Similarly, the authority of local governing authorities to interpret zoning regulations, building and fire codes, and other local regulations can influence the design of the laboratory facility. Choosing between the different alternatives is a complex process that must strike a balance between benefits and costs. The latter include construction, total project, operation, and lifetime costs of the building; these costs are discussed in the section on "Research Laboratory Cost Considerations" in this chapter. When choosing between the different alternatives, other factors besides costs and benefits also need to be considered flexibility is the one that often pervades all the design considerations discussed in this chapter. Flexibility, which is also referred to as adaptability, is the ability of a building site, building design, or individual laboratory to meet both current and unforeseen future needs. Future laboratory additions, renovations, and modifications can be implemented cost effectively, in a timely manner, and with less disruption to other users if the laboratory facility is designed to be flexible. Flexibility may come at a modest increase in the initial construction cost; however, because numerous changes will be made to a laboratory over its lifetime, the cost incurred to design and Building Site 

If the predesign recommendation is to construct an addition or a new building, a building site must be selected. While the selection process for a building site is complicated by many factors and can be difficult, the decision regarding the building site should ultimately be based on a total environmental approach. How does the building fit into the campus and community? What demands are placed on the natural and manmade environment? For example, electric power, telephone and communications lines, and sewer and water connections may have to be upgraded. For corporate and academic campuses with other centralized utilities, such as steam.

Some of the design considerations discussed in this chapter include specific alternative approaches. 

What BOX 3.7 Demands Made on the Environment by Laboratory Facilities

Natural Environment

• Air quality

—Building emissions

—Traffic emissions

• Water quality

—Building effluents

—Storm water runoff 

Man-made Environment

• Transport of hazardous materials

• Additional vehicular traffic

• Space for parking

• Fire protection

• Access for emergency response

for heating and cooling water, expansion of or upgrades to the central power plant and cooling towers may also be needed. 

Floor Planning

 The planning of the laboratory floor is influenced by the building's site, building and fire codes, security concerns, laboratory users, the culture of the organization, and other design decisions made during previous phases. The laboratory floor layout and the resulting traffic flow can reflect or change the culture of an organization. For example, the building can promote interaction by centralizing or clustering research offices and by locating conference rooms or other meeting spaces to allow ready access from the laboratories and offices, or it can isolate researchers by placing small, closed laboratories along a lengthy circulation corridor. Interaction diagrams can be used as a method to identify desirable and undesirable interactions within the building as well as critical interactions between occupants of the building and the surrounding campus and community. These interactions should be considered when alternative floor layouts are evaluated to identify appropriate adjacencies.

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filters and bio safety cabinets may be required to meet the special ventilation requirements. These and other features (Box 3.10) of laboratories and many of the related issues that must be considered when designing a laboratory are discussed in this section.

BOX 3.10 Laboratory Features and Furnishings

• Laboratory desks
• Bench tops
• Fume hoods
• Flooring
• Special ventilation
• Lighting
• Laboratory casework and furniture
• Accommodation of special environments
• Laboratory utility services

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Q.2 Write importance of the following in science laboratory: Labeling, Compatibility, proper checking of stock and maintenance of the materials.
Answer:

Labeling Chemicals in Laboratories

Unambiguous identification of chemicals in a laboratory is of utmost importance. Nothing is more difficult to handle than an unknown substance posing unidentified hazards. Disposal of unknown chemicals is expensive and requires a screening procedure to identify potential hazards. Laboratories are used by several people, and staff and students change frequently, so everyone who works in a laboratory is responsible for ensuring that chemicals and their associated hazards can be identified throughout their lifetime. 

Compatibility : 

PROVIDING FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT, AND SUPPLIES

 In response to growing enrollments and the deterioration of an older generation of buildings, school districts across the nation are involved in a wave of construction and renovation. A comprehensive survey conducted by the General Accounting Office in 1996 revealed that many existing school buildings were i need of reconstruction or renovation. At that time, one-third of schools across the nation needed either extensive renovation or reconstruction, while another third had at least one major structural flaw, such as a leaky roof, an outdated electrical system, or dysfunctional plumbing (U.S. General Accounting Office, 1996). 

On average, public elementary and secondary schools across the nation are devoting an increasing share of their budgets—from 10 percent in 1989-1990 to 14 percent in 2002-2002—to capital investments (National Center for Education Statistics, 2004 b). Trend data from an annual mail and telephone survey of school district chief business officers indicate that planned and completed school construction spending nearly doubled over the past decade, increasing from $10.7 billion in 1994 to $28.6 billion in 2003 (Agron, 2003). About 61 percent of these expenditures was for new construction, and 39 percent was for additions or renovations to existing buildings. Another recent survey found that spending on school construction projects to be completed in 2003 totaled $19.7 billion, with 64 percent of the total dedicated to new construction, 21 percent for additions to existing buildings, and 14 percent for renovations of existing structures (Abramson, 2004). Respondents to the second survey indicated that 41 percent of expenditure for projects to be completed in 2003 were for high schools. They indicated that 100 percent of new high schools and 92 percent of new middle schools would include science laboratories (Abramson, 2004). Laboratory facilities were included as part of additions to existing schools much less frequently (in about 18 percent of high school projects and 8 percent of middle school projects). 

Checking the stock : 

Check all the stocks in lab. the following information can be obtained a. The annual consumption of al consumable item b. Period of the year consumable items are required c. New apparatus that is required for coming year d. Items of equipment and apparatus that have been damaged or stolen .

. In a corporate research facility that are not readily accessible to the general public. In that case, meeting rooms are needed so that visitors can interact with the building occupants without having to enter the secure area of the building. A reception area with adjoining conference rooms, augmented by the necessary security measures, is a common solution to the need for providing spaces accessible to invited guests while restricting access to other portions of the building. The building can be designed to clearly define the entrance and the areas within the building intended for use by the general public. The design group can help the client develop a systematic approach to identifying intended interactions, security levels, and functions of the building. The planning of the various spaces on each floor should reflect the established interaction criteria. Modular Approach to Laboratory Floor Layout A modular approach to laboratory floor layout is generally recommended by design professionals and often used. The single laboratory module is the starting point for the floor layout. Larger laboratories, which can support group research activities, sharing of support facilities, and the larger area required for teaching laboratories, can comprise multiple laboratory modules. When a floor layout is modular, partitions to separate laboratory units can easily be added to the larger laboratory units to define space for different activities if the need arises. The size of the laboratory module and the grid configuration are often determined at the same time—one typically informs the other. In turn, the number of modules and the grid configuration determine the overall size of the building footprint. The structural grid is defined by the structural column and beam locations. Thus for a building with a structural grid of 24 feet by 30 feet, a single laboratory module would typically occupy one-half of the width of the grid, or in this example an area 12 feet by 30 feet, or 360 square feet. The area of the laboratory module may be reduced, however, by the configuration of the circulation corridor. For example, the area of the laboratory module would be reduced to 12 feet by 24 feet if a 6footwide peripheral circulation corridor were used. Mayer (1995) discusses typical laboratory module sizes and standard work area layouts for them. Planning a floor layout by the modular approach and standardizing the sizes and shapes of the individual laboratories will create a flexible floor plan that is space efficient and less costly to construct than one with fixed assorted-sized laboratories. Developing a generic laboratory design with features that accommodate the majority of the researchers' requirements can also result in a highly efficient research laboratory facility. Customized configurations of the laboratory and its support spaces can be less flexible, less space efficient, and more costly to construct. Some customization, however, is necessary to accommodate the specialized requirements of individual research laboratories. On the one hand, customization in laboratory support spaces can provide necessary unique facilities without compromising the integrity of the generic approach to the research laboratories. On the other hand, inessential personal customization of research laboratories or laboratory support spaces can delay the progress of the design and documentation phases and escalate project costs. Highly customized laboratories limit the ability to move research activities from one laboratory to another, and highly customized features desired by one researcher may represent an encumbrance and safety hazard to other researchers. Minor changes to a generic laboratory are easy to accomplish at a modest cost, whereas changes to a highly customized laboratory can be costly. 

Materials Distribution.

Larger quantities of materials and supplies are moved within a laboratory building than in an office building. Orderly movement of the materials is accomplished by a well-designed network of hallways, service corridors, elevators, and a loading dock with adjacent areas for receiving, storage, and staging. In larger buildings, a dedicated network of service corridors and freight elevators can be used to minimize the congestion in the pedestrian circulation corridor and passenger elevators of the building Service corridors with designated freight elevators provide an additional margin of safety for the building users. People using pedestrian circulation corridors are physically isolated from the movement of large, heavy, bulky, and potentially hazardous items through the service corridors. The delivery personnel, using the service corridors, can focus their attention on their task and are less likely to be distracted or startled by a person stepping out of an office into the path of an oncoming, fully loaded delivery cart. Security. The building design, especially the means of access and egress, should take personal security and the need to protect property from theft into consideration. 

Laboratory Configuration 

A laboratory with fume hoods, benches, and a sink may be the generic image of a laboratory, but the specific needs of different laboratory activities or scientific disciplines require highly specialized facilities (see, e.g., DiBerardinisetal., 1993, pp. 123–342). In general, research laboratories require special ventilation, are utility intensive, and require special furnishings that can withstand instruments, equipment, and potentially caustic and damaging chemicals. In chemistry laboratories, a fume hood usually provides the special ventilation needed. In molecular biology laboratories, high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA)  

Maintenance of material :Laboratory Equipment Maintenance

Keeping your lab equipment in peak condition is vital if the results of your experiments are going to be accurate and reliable. Precise measurements are the foundation of most science experiments, so failing to maintain your equipment could derail your entire study. Contamination can also completely invalidate your lab results, so thorough housekeeping is just as important as the more glamorous parts of working in a lab. Labs rely on the ability to deliver accurate results in minimal turnaround time, and efficient equipment is essential to make sure that these goals can be met. In addition to this, equipment is often one of the most significant outlays in labs, where limited funding often means that expenditure must be carefully controlled. From aiding your research to keeping your lab costs within budget, there are plenty of reasons why equipment maintenance is essential for your lab. That’s why we’ve put together a comprehensive guide on lab equipment.

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Q.3 Write necessary material and procedures for the conduct of following practicals:
i. To find the diameter of a wire with the help of screw gauge.
Answer:

 b) Zero Error This error occurs if we move the screw in one direction and then in opposite directions repeatedly. If on bringing the flat end of the screw in contact with the zero mark on base line of the main scale, the instrument is said to be free from zero error. Otherwise an error is said to be there. This can be both positive and negative zero error. 

Apparatus

Micrometer screw gauge, small sphere, fine wire, and half-meter rod. 

Procedure 

1. Find the pitch and least count of screw gauge. 
2. Find the zero error, and determine the sign of screw gauge. 
3. Place the wire in gap AB (see the fig.) and turn the screw gauge till the wire is gently pressed. Note the reading of linear as well as the circular scale in table. 
4. Complete the table up to last column. Take the reading from different places of the wire. 
5. Repeat the process for the given small sphere. 
6. Calculate mean diameter of the sphere. 
7. Find the radius and hence area of cross-section of wire. Also the volume of the sphere by applying the formula

ii. Staining of check cells.

Answer:

Observing human cheek cells under a microscope is a simple way to quickly view and learn about human cell structure. Many educational facilities use the procedure as an experiment for students to explore the principles of microscopy and the identification of cells, and viewing cheek cells is one of the most common school experiments used to teach students how to operate light microscopes. The observation uses a wet mount process that is straightforward to achieve by following an effective preparation method. You can replicate the observational experiment at home or in the classroom with any standard light microscope with magnification settings of X-40 and X-100.

How to Prepare a Wet Mount of Cheek Cells

Before starting, it is always important to ensure that the working surface is clean and that you are wearing a pair of clean gloves to avoid contamination.

Cheek cells can be easily obtained by gently scraping the inside of the mouth using a clean, sterile cotton swab.

Once the cells have been obtained, the following procedure is used for cheek cell wet mount preparation:

1. Physiological saline on a clean microscopic slide (central part of the slide)
2. Smear the cotton swab on to the center (part containing the saline drop) of the clean slide for about 4 seconds to get the cells on to the center of the slide
3. Add a drop of methylene blue solution on to the smear and gently place a cover slip on top (to cover the stain and the cells)
4. Any excess solution can be removed by touching one side of the slide with a paper towel or blotting paper.
5. Place the slide on the microscope for observation using 4 x or 10 x objective to find the cells
6. Once the cells have been found, they can then be viewed at higher magnification

Note- Used cotton swabs and cotton towel should be safely discarded in the trash and not left lying on the working table.

Why do we have to Stain the Cells?

The cell has different parts, and those that can absorb stains or dyes are referred to as chromatic. Having absorbed the stain, these parts of the cell become more visible under the microscope and can therefore be easily distinguished from other parts of the same cell.

Without stains, cells would appear to be almost transparent, making it difficult to differentiate its parts.

Methylene blue has a string affinity for both DNA and RNA. When it comes in contact with the two, a darker stain is produced and can be viewed under the microscope.

The nucleus at the central part of the cheek cell contains DNA. When a drop of methylene blue is introduced, the nucleus is stained, which makes it stand out and be clearly seen under the microscope. Although the entire cell appears light blue in color, the nucleus at the central part of the cell is much darker, which allows it to be identified.

Observation

On mounting the wet slide, the following will be observed:

• Large irregularly shaped cells with distinct cell walls.
• A distinct nucleus at the central part of each individual cell (dark blue in color).
• A lightly stained cytoplasm in each cell. Conclusion

This is an easy and fun experiment that will show kids the basic structure of a cell and its major parts. For easy identification of the parts, the parent or teacher can first show the kids some samples of the cells in advance.This will help them identify different parts with ease.

Once this has been achieved, kids can move on to the next stage of learning the functions of these different parts.

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Q.4 What are different aspects for laboratory inspection? Why chemistry laboratory inspection is more crucial than physics laboratory?

Answer:

W hat is a Self-Inspection?

Laboratory self-inspection is a check of one's own physical space, processes, and practices to identify unsafe conditions. An effective self-inspection program focusing on safety and health issues includes assessing facilities, verifying that safeguards and safety equipment are available, and verifying that approved safety practices are being followed.

The occupant of a work space is the most knowledgeable on the conditions and operations that occur on a daily basis. The laboratory professional using a given instrument to perform a specific assay for a particular sample type has the most intimate, proximal knowledge of the safety issues involved in any particular process. Including laboratory staff in the inspection process helps the laboratory remain ever prepared for an audit or inspection.1 From the vantage point of the laboratory bench, the staff member can determine whether appropriate controls, as listed in Table 1, are in place.

Any unsafe work practices observed during a self-inspection can become an opportunity for training. Adult learners are result-oriented and usually like to be viewed as leaders making choices through active participation in the process. Learning by doing will result in longer-term recall and the incorporation of safer practices at the work bench

The foundation for implementing a laboratory self-inspection program covering safety and health in clinical laboratories is already in place in most clinical laboratories. Laboratory safety inspections can identify and prevent problems before they occur; however, the verification format needs to include more than a review of manuals and records.

• Quality assessment (QA) programs in existence encourage laboratory management teams to fundamentally shift the organization's mindset and culture to one that embraces quality management systems concepts.
• Self-inspection checklists follow the format and requirements for other elements in a laboratory's QA program.
• Safety and health is included in laboratory accreditation programs, with questions and supporting information available for members to use as part of their pre-review process.
• Checklists are used in laboratories as an effective way to keep track of maintenance and calibration activities.

Why Safety and Health Audits?

Laboratory workers have the legal right to a safe workplace. OSHA, as established by the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970, enforces protective safety and health standards in all United States workplaces.According to OSHA,

Employers are responsible for providing a safe and healthful workplace for their employees. OSHA's role is to assure the safety and health of America's workers by setting and enforcing standards; providing training, outreach and education; establishing partnerships; and encouraging continual improvement in workplace safety and health.

Twenty-five US states, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands have developed and currently operate their own OSHA-approved safety and health programs. These programs may have slight variations from those of federal OSHA but the standards of those programs must be at least as effective as those of federal OSHA. Since 1991, California is one of the US states with an approved state OSHA program. Cal OSHA requires all private employers with 20 or more employees to have a written, effective Injury and Illness Prevention Program (IIPP) in place.15 Material available from the Department of Industrial Relations (DIR) provides guidance on elements to include in the written plan.

The benefits of an effective IIPP not only include improved workplace safety and health but also better morale, increased productivity, and overall reduced costs of doing business.OSHA also provides examples of effective IIPPs that have been shown to successfully reduce workplace injuries and illnesses.

Why Use a Checklist?

A checklist format, although not stipulated as a requirement by OSHA, provides a concise outline of key points for auditing safety and health in clinical or research laboratories. Table 2 lists key elements to consider when developing an effective checklist. . The document has the following qualities:

• Outlines standards applicable for the major hazards that laboratory workers are most likely to encounter in their daily tasks.
• Describes the hierarchy of controls framework used to systematically remove or reduce the potential for exposure to workplace hazards. 
• Includes a program description for potential hazards and applicable regulations arranged by classes of hazards:
• Chemical
• Biological, blood-borne pathogens
• Working with research animals
• Compressed gases, cryogens, and dry ice
• Ionizing and non-ionizing radiation
• Ergonomic
• Trips, slips, and falls
• Noise
• Equipment (autoclaves, centrifuges, bio safety cabinets, fume hoods, and lockout/tag-out devices)
• Electrical safety
• Fire safety
• Examine existing conditions
• Measure practices after safety training has been completed
• Record observations and correct deficiencies
• Verify continued correction
• Include a mechanism to identify trends and recurrent deficiencies
• Engage staff participation for awareness of policies and procedures

The end results and goals are to minimize and reduce safety and health risks, to create a safe workplace, and to promote safe work practices.

For clinical laboratories, safety and health considerations are required under the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Act (CLIA) revisions adopted in 2003 as part of developing an effective QA program to monitor quality throughout the testing process. Most laboratory accreditation programs include safety as part of QA in evaluating all facets of the laboratory's technical and nontechnical operations.

Chemistry lab inspection

Chemistry Lab

Teachers and teacher-aides should lead by example and wear personal protective equipment; follow and enforce safety rules, procedures, and practices; and demonstrate safety behavior and promote a culture of safety. They should be proactive in every aspect of laboratory safety, making safety a priority. The following is a checklist for teachers highlighting essential information for working in the high school laboratory. This is a general safety checklist and should be periodically re-evaluated for updates.

Upkeep of Laboratory and Equipment

Conduct regular inspections of safety and first aid equipment as often as requested by the administration. Record the inspection date and the inspector’s initials on the attached equipment inspection tag.

Notify the administration in writing if a hazardous or possibly hazardous condition (e.g., malfunctioning safety equipment or chemical hazard) is identified in the laboratory and follow through on the status. Never use defective equipment.

Record keeping

Keep organized records on safety training of staff for as long as required by the school system. Keep records of all laboratory incidents for as long as required by the school system.

Safety and Emergency Procedures

Educate students on the location and use of all safety and emergency equipment prior to laboratory activity.

Identify safety procedures to follow in the event of an emergency/accident. Provide students with verbal and written safety procedures to follow in the event of an emergency/accident.

Know the location of and how to use the cut-off switches and valves for the water, gas, and electricity in the laboratory.

Know the location of and how to use all safety and emergency equipment (i.e., safety shower, eyewash, first-aid kit, fire blanket, fire extinguishers and mercury spill kits).

Keep a list of emergency phone numbers near the phone.

Conduct appropriate safety and evacuation drills on a regular basis.

Explain in detail to students the consequences of violating safety rules and procedures.

Maintenance of Chemicals

• Perform regular inventory inspections of chemicals.
• Update the chemical inventory at least annually, or as requested by the administration. Provide a copy of the chemical inventory to the local emergency responders (i.e., fire department).
• Do not store food and drink with any chemicals.
• If possible, keep all chemicals in their original containers.
• Make sure all chemicals and reagents are labeled.
• Do not store chemicals on the lab bench, on the floor, or in the laboratory chemical hood.
• Ensure chemicals not in use are stored in a locked facility with limited access.
• Know the storage, handling, and disposal requirements for each chemical used.
• Make certain chemicals are disposed of properly. Consult the label and the Material Safety Data Sheet for disposal information and always follow appropriate chemical disposal regulations.

Preparing for Laboratory Activities

Before each activity in the laboratory, weigh the potential risk factors against the educational value.

Have an understanding of all the potential hazards of the materials, the process, and the equipment involved in every laboratory activity.

• Inspect all equipment/apparatus in the laboratory before use.
• Before entering the laboratory, instruct students on all laboratory procedures that will be conducted.
• Discuss all safety concerns and potential hazards related to the laboratory work that students will be performing before starting the work. Document in lesson plan book.

Ensuring Appropriate Laboratory Conduct

• Be a model for good safety conduct for students to follow.
• Make sure students are wearing the appropriate personal protective equipment (i.e., chemical splash goggles, laboratory aprons or coats, and gloves).
• Enforce all safety rules and procedures at all times.
• Never leave students unsupervised in the laboratory.
• Never allow unauthorized visitors to enter the laboratory.
• Never allow students to take chemicals out of the laboratory.
• Never permit smoking, food, beverages, or gum in the laboratory.

This information is from the School Chemistry Laboratory Safety Guide created by the U.S. Consumer Safety Product Commission (CPSC), Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).

Inspections of chemistry lab is crucial than physics lab because of the presence of so many chemicals .these chemicals require lots of time to inspect .where as in physics lab limited apparatus is present which can easily inspect .

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Q.5 Write techniques of handling chemicals. Write techniques for pouring and transferring liquids.

Answer:

 Laboratory Rules and Safety

Chemistry wet laboratories contain certain inherent dangers and hazards. As a chemistry student working in a laboratory, you must learn how to work safely with these hazards in order to prevent injury to yourself and others around you. You must make a constant effort to think about the potential hazards associated with what you are doing, and to think about how to work safely to prevent or minimize these hazards as much as possible. The following guidelines are here to help you. Please understand and follow these guidelines and act according to the principles behind them to help everybody to be as safe as possible. Ultimately, your own safety is your own responsibility. Please make sure you are familiar with the safety precautions, hazard warnings and procedures of the experiment you are performing on a given day before you start any work. If you are unsure of how to do something safely, please ask the TA before proceeding. Experiments should not be performed without an instructor in attendance and must not be left unattended while in progress. No unauthorized experiments are allowed. No modification of the experiments is allowed. No work outside of regular hours is allowed, except under exceptional circumstances. 

Anyone who fails to be governed by the Safety Regulations is subject to disciplinary action and possible removal from the laboratory and course.

Safety Rules

Make sure you are familiar with all the safety information given to you about each experiment before starting the experiment. This includes your manual, these safety guidelines, any posted information or any other information provided to by your TA.

Always wear safety glasses (including during check-in and check-out), except when their removal has been specifically authorized by the TA prior to their removal. Contact lenses are forbidden. You must also wear a face shield when requested to by the TA.

You must wear a lab coat (and do it up) in all Chemistry labs.

Footwear must completely cover the foot and heel (no sandals, baby dolls, ballet flats, mules, open-toed footwear, etc.).

You must wear long pants (no shorts, capris, skirts, or dresses).

If you arrive at your Chemistry lab and do not have the required clothing, you will be directed to rent or purchase missing items (glasses, lab coats, disposable foot coverings and long pants) from Chemistry Stores before you will be allowed to participate in the lab.

Loose hair must be tied back so as to be out of the way. Dangling jewellery must be removed. Do not eat or drink in the lab.

Visitors are not allowed to be in the lab.

1. Please keep your work area and the common work areas tidy. Also, please make sure the aisles, safety showers, eyewash stations and doorways are unobstructed.
2.  Please leave all glassware, equipment, tools, etc. as clean or cleaner than you found them.
3.  Please clean up spills immediately. If the spill is large or is of a hazardous material, inform the TA immediately. Use spill mix to absorb solvent or caustic liquids.
4. Please dispose of waste properly and in a timely manner and according to the instructions provided in your lab manual. If you are not sure, please ask your TA for the proper method of disposal.
5. Wash your hands before you leave the lab.
6. Do not remove chemicals or equipment from the lab except when required to do so for analysis.
7. Please notify your TA of any serious medical conditions.
8. Do not wear earbuds or earphones while in the lab.

The vapours of many organic solvents are flammable or combustible. Do not expose electric sparks, open flames and heating elements to organic solvent vapours. UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED, ASSUME ALL ORGANIC SOLVENTS ARE FLAMMABLE.

Many chemicals (solid, liquid or vapour) are poisonous. Do not taste chemicals. If it is necessary to smell a chemical, do so by fanning the vapours towards your nose. Never inhale directly. Avoid inhaling dust or fine powders. Use fume hoods and personal protective equipment when necessary.

Do not pipet with your mouth. .

Managing Reagent Chemicals

1. Selecting Reagent Chemicals

Each school system should develop a list of reagents acceptable for use in the various science courses. A teacher who wishes to use a substance not on the appropriate list must seek the permission of the science supervisor by submitting a written request. The request should include the following:

• A copy of the lesson plan for the proposed demonstration or laboratory exercise.
• Information supporting the following assertions:
• Use of the substance is pedagogically sound.
• The demonstration or laboratory exercise using the substance is an effective way to illustrate an important property, process or concept.
• No satisfactory substitute for the substance is readily available.
• Adequate safeguards are in place to ensure proper use of the substance.
• Students will be instructed in the proper handling of the substance (as indicated in the lesson plan).
• Information on the following to enable the supervisor to make an informed decision:
• the extent of exposure of students and the teacher to the chemical (including estimate of time to the nearest minute).
• the age or maturity level of the students who will be exposed.
• In considering a substance for use in the laboratory, teachers are advised to check hazardous materials lists available in print and on the Internet. Resources available include the following:

The National Toxicological Program for lists of carcinogenic and reproductive toxins (teratogens and mutagens)

The National Research Council’s Prudent Practices in the Laboratory (1995), Chapter 3, for lists of carcinogens, mutagens, teratogens, and highly flammable materials

• The Oak Ridge Toxicology Information Resources Center’s Catalog of Teratogenic Agents
• Appearance of a substance on one of these lists does not preclude its appropriate use in the school laboratory. The dose makes the difference. Even common substances such as water and salt can be toxic in excessive quantities. Many substances that are toxic at some levels can safely be used at lower levels.
• Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs), which provide information on toxicity levels, may be found on the Internet.
• Chemical Inventory: Inventories of reagents are essential in the control of chemical hazards. They enable members of the science department to determine the existence of a specific reagent chemical, its location, and its approximate shelf age. A reagent chemical inventory should be conducted at least once a year. The chemical inventory record should 
• contain the date the inventory was conducted.
• identify chemical reagents by name and formula.
• specify the amount of each reagent present.
• indicate the storage location of each reagent.
• indicate the hazard of each reagent, using information from the Material Data Safety Sheet (MSDS) for each substance and the appropriate National Fire Protection Association hazard code.

Chemical Storage

. General Guidelines

• Secure storage areas against unauthorized removal of chemicals by students or others.
• Protect the school environment by restricting emissions from stored reagent chemicals. Vents should be ducted to the outside.
• Where possible, storage areas should have two separate exits. 
• Maintain clear access to and from the storage areas.
• Do not store chemicals in aisles or stairwells, on desks or laboratory benches, on floors or in hallways, or in fume hoods.
• Use NFPA- or OSHA-approved storage cabinets for flammable chemicals.
• Use an appropriate “Acid Cabinet” for any acid solutions of 6 M concentration or higher. Nitric acid needs to be isolated.
• Use refrigerators of explosion-proof or explosion-safe design only. Do not use standard refrigerators to store flammable chemicals. Place NO FOOD labels on refrigerators used to store chemicals.
• Label storage areas with a general hazard symbol to identify hazardous chemicals and indicate correct fire fighting procedures.
• See Appendix E, NFPA Hazard Codes.
• File a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for every chemical stored in the laboratory.
• Store all reagent chemicals in compatible family groups. Do not alphabetize.
• See Appendix F, Storage of Chemicals.
• Store all chemicals at eye level and below. The preferred shelving material is wood treated with polyurethane or a similar impervious material. All shelving should have a two-inch lip. If you use shelving with metal brackets, inspect the clips and brackets annually for corrosion and replace as needed.
• Store chemical reagents prepared in the laboratory in plastic bottles (if possible and appropriate to the chemical) to minimize the risk of breakage.
• Date containers upon receipt and again when opened.
• Attach chemical labels with all necessary information to all containers.
• See Chapter VII.A.5, Labeling of Stored Reagent Chemicals.
• When opening newly received reagent chemicals, immediately read the warning labels to be aware of any special storage precautions such as refrigeration or inert atmosphere storage.
• Test peroxide-forming substances periodically for peroxide levels; dispose of these substances after three months unless the MSDS for the substance indicates a longer shelf life.
• See Appendix G, Hazards of Peroxide-Forming Substances, and Appendix C, Materials Data Safety Sheets (MSDS): Explanation and Samples.
• Check chemical containers periodically for rust, corrosion, and leakage.
• Store bottles of especially hazardous and moisture-absorbing chemicals in chemical-safe bags.
• Maintain a complete inventory in the room where the chemicals are stored, and make a copy available to fire fighters.
• Keep storage areas clean and orderly at all times.
• Have spill cleanup supplies (absorbents, neutralizers) in any room where chemicals are stored or used.

a. Storage of Flammable and Combustible Liquids

Flash point is defined as the minimum temperature of a liquid at which it gives off sufficient vapor to form an ignitable mixture with air.

Flammable liquid is defined as any liquid that has a flash point below 100 F (37.8°C).

Combustible liquid is defined as any liquid that has a flash point at or above 100 F (37.8 ° C).

. Guidelines

• Limit the amount of flammable and combustible materials stored to that required for one year of laboratory work.
• When possible, store flammable and combustible liquids in their original containers or safety cans. A safety can is an approved container of not more than 5 gallons (18.9 L) capacity. The container should have a spring-closed spout cover and an integral flame-arrester and be designed to relieve internal pressure safely when exposed to fire.

b. Storage of Compressed Gases

• Use small lecture-bottle-type gas cylinders only. Store all gas cylinders in an upright position.
• Store gas cylinders in a cool dry place away from corrosive chemicals or fumes.
• Store gas cylinders away from highly flammable substances.
• When cylinders are no longer in use, shut the valves, relieve the pressure in the gas regulators, removed the regulators, and cap the cylinders.
• Label empty gas cylinders EMPTY or MT.
• Store empty gas cylinders separately from full gas cylinders.
• Store flammable or toxic gases at or above ground level – not in basements.
• Use cylinders of toxic, flammable, or reactive gases in fume hoods only.
• When moving cylinders, be sure the valve cap is securely in place to protect the valve stem and valve. Do not use the valve cap as a lifting lug.
• If large gas cylinders are used, they should be chained. A hand truck should be available for transporting them to and from the storage area.

Labeling of Stored Reagent Chemicals

Proper labeling is fundamental to a safe and effective laboratory operation. Reagents created in the laboratory also require labeling.

Purchased Reagent Chemicals

All purchased reagent chemicals should be labeled with –

• chemical name.
• date received.
• date of initial opening.
• shelf-life.
• storage classification location.
• name and address of manufacturer. 

a. Solutions

All reagents created in the laboratory should be labeled with –

• chemical name and formula.
• concentration.
• date prepared.
• name of person who prepared the reagent.
• storage classification.
• hazard warning label (available from a safety supplier).
• reference to original source of chemical (e.g., manufacturer, which jar, etc.).

B. Handling Reagent Chemicals

1. Dispensing Reagent Chemicals

The MSDS for an individual substance should always be consulted before a chemical is used for any reason. It is the best source of information about possible hazards, spill procedures, handling procedures and first aid for any substance.

Teachers are responsible for instructing their students about safe methods for working with chemicals.

a. Safety Guidelines for Dispensing Reagent Chemicals

• Use the smallest amount of the chemical possible in any experiment. Microscale experiments should be considered.

• Consider distributing the amount of chemical for an experiment into vials for each student. This minimizes waste and can save time during the class period.
• Use proper containers for dispensing solids and liquids. Solids should be contained in wide-mouthed bottles and liquids in containers that have drip-proof lips.
• Label all containers properly.
• Never return dispensed chemicals to stock bottle, as it inevitably results in contamination despite your best precautions.

Dispensing Flammable Liquids

When a liquid flows from one container to another, static electricity can build up in one of the containers. If this charge becomes large enough, a spark will be produced between the containers, and a flammable liquid may be ignited. This is particularly a danger when the liquid is stored in a large container and distributed to smaller containers.

Such containers should be bonded and grounded:

• Bonding refers to providing an electrical connection between the two containers. Commonly this is accomplished by attaching a wire, fastening one end each to the two containers.
• Grounding refers to connecting one of the containers (usually the stationary one) to a grounding source such as a metallic water pipe.

Common Hazards

Four categories of hazards commonly found in school laboratories are: corrosives, flammables, oxidizers/reactives, and toxins. In this section, mercury is discussed separately as a special hazard.

Corrosives

Corrosives are materials that can injure body tissue or cause corrosion of metal by direct chemical action. Major classes of corrosive substances are:

• strong acids (e.g., sulfuric, nitric, hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids)
• strong bases (e.g., sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide)
• dehydrating agents (e.g., sulfuric acid, sodium hydroxide, phosphorus pentoxide, and calcium oxide)
• oxidizing agents (e.g., hydrogen peroxide, chlorine, and bromine)

Flammables

Flammable substances have the potential to catch fire readily and burn in air. A flammable liquid itself does not catch fire; it is the vapors produced by the liquid that burn. Important properties of flammable liquids:

• Flash point is the minimum temperature of a liquid at which sufficient vapor is given off to form an ignitable mixture with air.
• Ignition temperature is the minimum temperature required to initiate self-sustained combustion independent of a heat source.

Oxidizers/Reactives

Oxidizers/reactives include chemicals that can explode, violently polymerize, form explosive peroxides, or react violently with water or atmospheric oxygen.

Oxidizers: An oxidizing agent is any material that initiates or promotes combustion in other materials, either by causing fire itself or by releasing oxygen or other combustible gases.

Reactives: Reactives include materials that are pyrophoric (“flammable solids”), are water reactive, form explosive peroxides, or may undergo such reactions as violent polymerization.

Toxins

A toxic substance is one that, even in small amounts, can injure living tissue.

Methods of Toxins Entering the Body:

• Ingestion – Absorption through the digestive tract. This process can occur through eating with contaminated hands or in contaminated areas.
• Absorption – Absorption through the skin often causes dermatitis. Some toxins that are absorbed through the skin or eyes can damage the liver, kidney, or other organs.
• Inhalation – Absorption through the respiratory tract (lungs) through breathing. This process is the most important route in terms of severity.
• Injection – Percutaneous injection of a toxic substance through the skin. This process can occur in the handling of sharp-edged pieces of broken glass apparatus and through misuse of sharp materials such as hypodermic needles.

Mercury

Mercury and its compounds, both organic and inorganic, are health hazards. Metallic mercury has a measurable vapor pressure, and the production of vapor is accentuated by heating the mercury or subdividing as occurs in a spill. Laboratory sources of mercury include, among others, thermometers, manometers (barometers), and batteries. Not only is the vapor harmful, but the metal itself is absorbable through the intact skin.

Mercury and its compounds should never be found in the elementary or middle school. 

i. In high schools, mercury should be used only under special circumstances. Mercury is acceptable in high school only if all four of these criteria are met:

• No substitute is available that will provide the degree of accuracy required for the operation.
• The teacher has obtained prior approval from the science supervisor.
• All persons in the laboratory working with mercury or an instrument containing mercury wear chemical splash safety goggles, full face shields, aprons, and adequate clothing to prevent skin contact.
• Access to mercury or any instrument containing the element is restricted by keeping source and instrument under lock and key except when in use.

Spill Cleanup

General Notes on Chemical Spills

• Spills should be contained, the area cleared of students, and the spill cleaned up immediately.
• Waste from spill cleanup should be disposed of appropriately.
• See Chapter VII.C, Chemical Waste Strategies.
• After floor spill has been thoroughly cleaned up in the appropriate manner, the area should be mopped dry to minimize the risk of slipping and falling.

Spills that Constitute Fire Hazard

• Extinguish all flames immediately.
• Shut down all experiments.
• Vacate the room until the situation has been corrected.

Mercury Spills

Whenever possible, mercury should not be used in school laboratories. If and when it is used, however, there is a chance of a spill occurring.

Each laboratory should therefore be equipped with a specialized, commercially available, mercury-spill kit. Follow the directions found in your kit for cleaning up a mercury spill.

C. Chemical Waste Strategies

All laboratory work with chemicals eventually produces chemical waste. Everyone associated with the science laboratory shares the legal and moral responsibility to minimize the amount of waste produced and to dispose of chemical waste in a way that has the least impact on the environment. Depending on what is contained in the waste, some waste must be professionally incinerated or deposited in designated landfills, while other waste can be neutralized or discharged in normal streams.

1. Minimizing Waste

a. Alternative Substances

Whenever possible, use less toxic substances in place of the more toxic chemicals to minimize the hazards and disposal costs associated with using certain chemicals. The table below contains a list of suggested substitutions for some toxic chemicals.

Toxic Chemical                                              Substitute

Chloroform                                                     Hexanes

Carbon tetrachloride                                       Hexanes

1,4-Dioxane                                                    Tetrahydrofuran

Benzene                                                          Cyclohexane or Toluene

Xylene                                                            Toluene

2-Butanol                                                        1-Butanol

Lead chromate                                                Copper carbonate

p-Dichlorobenzene                                         Naphthalene, Lauric acid, Cetyl alcohol, 

                                                                        1-Octadecanol, Palmitic acid, or Stearic acid

Potassium                                                       Calcium

Dichromate/Sulfuric acid                               Ordinary detergents

Trisodium phosphate                                      Ordinary detergents

Alcoholic potassium hydroxide                     Ordinary detergents

b. Microscale Laboratories

Microscale experiments reduce the amount of material required, therefore reducing the hazards encountered and disposal costs. Many laboratory manuals on the market describe microscale experiments. These should be considered whenever possible to replace “classic” laboratory experiments. 

c. Classroom Demonstrations

Another way to reduce the hazards for students, and reduce the amount of waste generated, is for the teacher to perform classroom demonstrations for the more hazardous experiments rather than have each student carry out the experiment.

d. Coordinate Laboratory Work

When planning laboratory experiments, try to coordinate with co-workers who may be doing the same or similar experiments so that reagents are made up at one time in the building, thus minimizing the amount of “left-over” reagent at the end of the experiment.

2. Waste Storage Prior to Disposal

• All waste should be stored in properly labeled containers. The label should contain the date, type of waste, and any other pertinent information required by the disposal company.
• Waste should be segregated to avoid unwanted reactions and to allow for cost-effective disposal.
• Waste should be stored in closed containers except when additional waste is being added.
• Each school science department should maintain a central, secure waste storage area.

3. Disposing of Waste

Teachers should be aware of the appropriate method of disposal for any chemical used in the school laboratory. When in doubt, refer to the MSDS, a disposal manual, or the source of the chemical. 

a. Classification of Hazardous Waste

The Environmental Protection Agency classifies wastes as:

• Ignitable: has a flash point below 140°C, is an oxidizer, or is an ignitable compressed gas.
• Corrosive: has a pH equal to or below 2.0 or a pH equal to or greater than 12.5.
• Reactive: is reactive with air or water, is explosive, or is cyanide or sulfide.
• Toxic: has certain levels of certain metals, solvents, or pesticides greater than prescribed limits.
• Others: any chemical found in the lists in 40 CFR 261 subpart D.

Classroom Management

• Make disposal options a part of all laboratory instructions for students. For each chemical waste produced, instruct students as to the appropriate disposal, including disposing of the substance in a disposal container or down the drain.
• Place all laboratory waste in a properly labeled container. The label should contain the date and type of waste.
• Immediately following the laboratory activity, place the waste containers in a secure location until the containers can be removed to the central storage area.
• Some chemical wastes may be recycled. Teachers should seek guidance on recycling from local safety officers or other knowledgeable administrative staff.

Drain Disposal

• Before considering drain disposal, be certain that the sewer flows to a wastewater treatment plant and not to a stream or other natural water course. Check with the local waste water treatment plant authority to determine what substances are acceptable for drain disposal.
• Any substance from a laboratory should be flushed with at least 100 times its own volume of tap water.
• Acids and bases should be at least above pH 3 and below pH 8 before being placed in a sanitary drain.
• If both ions of a compound are on the following lists, that compound may be placed in a sanitary drain:

Positive Ions:

• aluminium
• ammonium
• bismuth
• calcium
• copper
• hydrogen
• iron
• lithium
• magnesium
• potassium
• sodium
• strontium
• tin
• titanium
• zinc
• zirconium

Negative Ions:

• borate
• bromide
• carbonate
• chloride
• cyanate
• hydrogen sulfide
• hydroxide
• iodide
• nitrate
• phosphate
• sulfate
• sulfite
• tetraboratex
• thiocynate

• The following organic compounds can go into drain:

• acetic acid
• oxalic acid
• acetone
• pentanols
• butanols
• propanols
• esters with less than 5 carbon
• sodium salts of carboxylic acid
• ethylene glycol
• formic acid
• glyceroal
• sugars
• methanol

• For additional information on drain disposal of substances, see the National Research Council’s Prudent Practices in the Laboratory (1983).
• If in doubt about the proper disposal of a chemical, check with the local safety officer or refer to Flinn or a similar reference.

Compounds Not Suitable for Drain Disposal

For compounds not suitable for drain disposal, label and package the compound and ship by a shipper approved by the U.S. Department of Transportation to a landfill designated by EPA to receive chemical and hazardous waste. Even though packed, shipped, and disposed of by licensed and approved firms, generators of hazardous waste are responsible for the wastes.

Partb: Lab Techniques

When you first set foot inside a chemistry lab, it can be a little overwhelming. There are chemicals in bottles, flame sources, and all kinds of fragile glassware. Learning the proper techniques, and how to use all the equipment can take time, but we all have to start with the basics.

Lab techniques are the processes and practices that are recommended for using the various equipment in the laboratory. In this lesson, we will go over some of the most basic lab techniques you will need to know.

Pouring, Measuring, and Filtering

How To Transfer Chemicals

SOLIDS

It is usually easier to transfer solids to a wide mouthed container such as a beaker. Take a labeled beaker to the reagent shelf where the chemicals are kept. When you take the top off the reagent bottle, don’t lay it down (risks contamination).Many solid chemicals can be easily transferred by tipping the bottle and slowly rotating the bottle back and forth. Don’t tip the bottle up high and let the contents pour out. If a spatula is provided at the reagent bottle, you may use it. Never use your own spatula. Be sure to put the right lid on the right bottle and return the bottle to its place on the shelf.

LIQUID TRANSFER

Take an appropriately sized, labeled beaker to the reagent shelf. The stopper of the reagent bottle should be held during transfer or, if it is flat, placed upside down on the counter. Carefully pour the amount of reagent that you will need, not extra, into the beaker and then close the reagent bottle.Graduated cylinders are unstable so transfer liquids into the labeled beaker first and then pour from the beaker into your graduated cylinder. It is a good idea to make this latter transfer over a sink.

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