AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 2.5 Year 8605 Educational Leadership and Management Assignment 1

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 2.5 Year 8605 Educational Leadership and Management Assignment 1

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Q No 1 Define Education Administration Explain the basic principles of educational administration? 

Anwser 

Brief outlines of the six principles of educational administration are discussed in this article. The principles are: 

(1) Structural Democracy, 

(2) Operational Democracy 

(3) Justice 

(4) Equality of Opportunity

(5) Prudence 

(6) Adaptability, Flexibility and Stability. 

1. Structural Democracy: 

Being the first principle of educational administration in the modern era it puts stress on democracy in structural perspective. It implies “the exercise of control” in democracy. The meaning of exercise of control in this light should be such that, it helps the students as future citizens in fulfilling their needs and requirements tending to their self-realization, safeguard the democratic government and welfare of people at local, state and national levels. 

This exercise of control refers to the meaning of democracy by treating each human being as, “a living, growing and potentially flowering organism.” Hence in this principle of educational administration the educational administration has to practise the principles of democracy both in structural and functional form.

In this regard and educational administrator will be a fittest one who can manage autocracy as and when necessary to achieve the goals of an educational programme. For actualizing it he has to perform his duty as democratically as possible.

2. Operational Democracy: 

This principle of educational administration gives priority on the practical aspect of democracy as a way of life and form of governance. To this, the essence of democracy is to give importance on the dignity of every individual and assisting him to understand his self in this context this principle considers democracy as a matter of spirit, way of life and a mode of behaviour. Keeping this in view it is the task and responsibility of an educational administrator to focus on day to day happenings in relation to democratic society in educational perspective that are relevant in wider extent.

Because this sort of democracy seeks to make democracy more practical rather than formal. For example a school or an educational institution is regarded as the society in miniature or a small society. It means the entire picture of the society has been reflected in the school. The same situation lies in case of a democratic society like ours where people expect the school or an educational institution will do a lot for actualizing democracy as a matter of spirit, way of life and a mode of behaviour practically.

In this light, it should be the function of the educational administrator to achieve it for which he may take the view of the students, consult with the staffs, specialists, expects and community members before taking any decision. This result in the emergence of a good and effective social order by the school or educational institution as an agency of education. Overall speaking this type of democracy as a principle of educational administration gives importance on practicability and relevance of day to day happenings of democracy in relation to educational perspective so far its administrative aspect is concerned.

3. Justice: 

Generally speaking justice refers to provide every individual his due in the society by honoring his individuality. This meaning of justice is the essence of democracy. As justice is one of the basic hallmarks of democratic administration, it is regarded as an essential principle of educational administrating which is democratic in form and practice. For practicing justice in educational administration there is the need and essentiality of giving due reward and share to every individual to his efforts and achievements.

Besides, every individual is to be given task or assignment in accordance with his needs, requirements, abilities, aptitudes etc. Hence the educational administrators for practicing justice as one of the principles of educational administration must be judicious while dealing with employees, students and public. But in Practice it is not happening as the educational administrators very often arbitrarily exercise discretionary powers and too narrowly apply uniform rules in one point.

And uniformity of rules in educational administration does not provide equality which is necessary to safeguard the individuals in another point. This nature of the educational administrator goes against the very essence of justice as it is to be free from such bias nature of them. Hence the educational administrators have to reduce this tendency to minimum for making justice beneficial, healthy and impartial in nature and approach as a principle of modern educational administration.

4. Equality of Opportunity: 

One of the important social objective of education is to equalize opportunity or facility for enabling the backward or under privileged classes and individuals to use education as a means for improvement of their condition.

In order to keep equality of opportunity in concrete shape in the field of education, educational administration plays a vital role. For this greater emphasis should be given on equality of educational opportunity for the shake of accelerating the process for building up of on egalitarian human society in which the age old social exploitation will be reduced to minimum.

The principle of uniformity is not to be practiced and maintained in the field of educational administration as equality does not refer to uniformity. The cause is that opportunity means to provide adequate facility or scope to every individual for his development. In this context, the reasons for existence of inequalities of educational opportunities cited by the Education Commission (1964-66) can be highlighted which must be stressed in the field of educational administration.

These are: 

• In equal distribution of educational institutions through out the country. 
• Poverty of a large Section of the population and relative affluence of a small minority. 
• Disparity between the education of boys and girls at all stages and in all sectors of education. 
• Disparity of educational development between the advanced classes and the backward classes.

Every society that values social justice and anxious to improve a lot of common man and cultivate all available talents, must ensure progressive equality of educational opportunity to all sections of the population. In this context it should be the task of educational administration to make special efforts for equalizing educational opportunities by reducing the above cited problems of it. As a result, equality of opportunity in educational process will be practiced by educational administration as one of its principles.

5. Prudence: 

Overall speaking prudence refers to thinking or planning or showing thought for future. Being contextual in approach it can be said that the futuristic outlook, vision and forward looking must be incorporated it the field of administration. Like general administration educational administration has to practice the exercise of foresight skill and vision with respect to matters concerning practical living and utility of the system of administration in future by the educational administrator. 

This principle “Prudence” is closely related to intelligent economy which implies quality control. In order to ensure quality control in the field of education, educational administration has to make expenditure on education by accepting it as an investment on human resource. Because without necessary expenditure on education there will be no question of quality in it and then what about the matter of quality control? 

It is evident from several studies that now in educational administration there lies a lot of wasteful expenditure for which the system of check and balance is essential. The system of check and balance is prudential in nature which seeks to protect an educational institution or organisation, an enterprise from mis-behaviours and mis-appropriation by an official or authority as misuse of power and funds that creates mischief. 

It is known to one and all that misuse of power and money leads to the loss of public in general. Hence like general administration in educational administration there is the necessity of the system of “check and balance” to prevent such misuse. This will be done if educational administration accepts it as its principle in real situation. 

Those who are good sociable, democratic competent and welfare oriented educational administrators liberty is granted for them. Liberty is granted to them with not making the system of “check and balance” rigid. Because it is essential to give freedom to the competent and delicate persons as educational administrators who are in the interest of good administration. 

They give a differential treatment to different students, staffs, officials and community members as per their need remaining within the jurisdiction of educational administration. Besides an educational administrator in order to prudential in nature and work must have simplicity, understanding capacity democratic spirit and effective communication ability with him as attributes. 

6. Adaptability, Flexibility and Stability: 

An institution must be able to adjust with changing situations by fulfilling the developing needs and by improving its day-to-day dealings with persons or agencies involved. This characteristic of an institution is called adaptability. In the process of achieving its educational objectives, it has to deal differently with different human beings like teachers, parents and the public at large, who are affected in one way or other by the process or its products. This tendency is called flexibility.

The educational institution however must be able to achieve adaptability without creating any dislocation or disruption in its process and achievements. This property is named as stability. An institution must have these three characteristics in order to be able to achieve its objectives adequately and to give due regard to all persons concerned in some way or other.

These three characteristics are dynamic, adaptability and flexibility are especially so. Stability, however, is called as prudential check on the change which retains good in the old and gives up bad in the new. Hence, careful evaluation of the old as well as the new is an essential feature of stability.

Adaptability is concerned with acts of change and flexibility to a great extent to counteract with uniformity and stability is mainly the counterweight to adaptability. Thus on the whole, adaptability is the capacity of an enterprise to change, to develop and to improve. Flexibility is the capacity of an institution to react in variance with persons and situations affected and to warn against the dangers of uniformity.

Stability on the other hand is the capacity of an organisation to safeguard the merits of the old while it is in the process of change. Hence, all these three qualities of adaptability, flexibility and stability are complementary to each other.

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Q No 2 As being a complete code of conduct islam has given some golden principles of administration explain them?

Answer:

The word “morality” comes from the Latin word moralitas meaning “manner, character, and proper behavior”. Morality generally refers to a code of conduct, that an individual, group or society hold as authoritative, in distinguishing right from wrong. Such an ideal code of conduct is often espoused in preference to other alternatives.

Islam as a comprehensive way of life encompasses a complete moral system that is an important aspect of its world-view. We live in an age where good and evil are often looked at as relative concepts. Islam however, holds that moral positions are not relative, and instead, defines a universal standard by which actions may be deemed moral or immoral.

Islam‟s moral system is striking in that it not only defines morality, but also guides the human race in how to achieve it, at both an individual as well as a collective level.

Basic Principles in Islamic Morality

The Islamic moral system stems from its primary creed of belief in One God as the Creator and Sustainer of the Universe. Islam considers the human race to be a part of God‟s creation, and as His subjects.

From an Islamic perspective, the purpose of human life is to worship God, by leading this worldly life in harmony with the Divine Will, and thereby achieve peace in this world, and everlasting success in the life of the hereafter. Muslims look to the Glorious Qur‟an and the Traditions of the Prophet as their moral guides.

The Glorious Qur‟an says:

“It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces Towards east or West; but it is righteousness- to believe in Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book, and the Messengers; to spend of your substance, out of love for Him, for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the ransom of slaves; to be steadfast in prayer, and practice regular charity; to fulfil the contracts which ye have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain (or suffering) and adversity, and throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the Allah-fearing.” [Al-Qur‟an 2:177]

This verse underscores the Islamic belief that righteousness and piety is based, before all else on a true and sincere faith. The key to virtue and good conduct is a strong relation with God, who sees all, at all times and everywhere. He knows the secrets of the hearts and the intentions behind all actions. Therefore, Islam enjoins moral behavior in all circumstances; God is aware of each one when no one else is. It may be possible to deceive the world, but it‟s not possible to deceive the Creator.

The love and continuous awareness of God and the Day of Judgment enables man to be moral in conduct and sincere in intentions, with devotion and dedication.

The Glorious Qur‟an says:

Say: the things that my Lord hath indeed forbidden are: shameful deeds, whether open or secret; sins and trespasses against truth or reason; assigning of partners to Allah, for which He hath given no authority; and saying things about Allah of which ye have no knowledge. [Al-Qur‟an 7:33]

It is interesting that the Qur‟an refers to “sins and trespasses against truth or reason”. It is an indication of God‟s blessing to every human being, of an innate moral sense. Such a moral sense, when uncorrupted by family or society, is what leads people to commendable acts of virtue. Islam aims to enhance and amplify the moral sense in every human being and adorn the individual‟s character with the noblest of virtues.

The Islamic moral principles therefore, appeal naturally to the human intellect, while elevating the pursuit of morality to the level of worship. This is because Islam holds every action that is done with the goal of attaining of God‟s pleasure to be worship.

Morality and the individual

The guiding principle for the behavior of a Muslim is what the Qur‟an refers to as Al `Amal Assalih or virtuous deeds. This term covers all deeds, not just the outward acts of worship.

Some of the most primary character traits expected of a Muslim are piety, humility and a profound sense of accountability to God. A Muslim is expected to be humble before God and with other people. Islam also enjoins upon every Muslim to exercise control of their passions and desires.

Islam warns against vanity and excessive attachment to the ephemeral pleasures of this world. While it is easy to allow the material world to fill our hearts, Islam calls upon human beings to keep God in their hearts and to use the material world in moderation and in accordance with God‟s guidance. The Glorious Qur‟an says:

“The Day whereon neither wealth nor sons will avail, but only he (will prosper) that brings to Allah a sound heart” [Al-Quran: 26:88-89]

Charity is one of the most commendable acts in Islam. In fact, Zakah, the annual charity that is obligatory on every Muslim who has accrued wealth above a certain level, is one of the pillars of Islam.

Gratitude in prosperity, patience in adversity, and the courage to uphold the truth, even when inconvenient to oneself, are just some of the qualities that every Muslim is encouraged to cultivate.

Morality and Society

For an individual as well as a society, morality is one of the fundamental sources of strength, just as immorality is one of the main causes of decline. While respecting the rights of the individual within a broad Islamic framework, Islam is also concerned with the moral health of the society.

Thus, everything that leads to the welfare of the individual and the society is morally good in Islam, and whatever is harmful is morally bad.

Given its importance to a healthy and just society, Islam supports morality and matters that lead to the enhancement of morality, and stands in the way of corruption and matters that lead to the spreading of corruption. The injunctions and prohibitions in Islam are to be seen in this light

Conclusion

Morality in Islam addresses every aspect of a Muslim‟s life, from greetings to international relations. It is universal in its scope and in its applicability.

A Muslim is expected to not only be virtuous, but to also enjoin virtue. He/She must not only refrain from evil and vice, but must also actively engage in asking people to eschew them. In other words, they must not only be morally healthy, but must also contribute to the moral health of society as a whole.

The Prophet Mohammed (peace be upon him) summarized the conduct of a Muslim when he said: “My Sustainer has given me nine commands: to remain conscious of God, whether in private or in public; to speak justly, whether angry or pleased; to show moderation both when poor and when rich, to reunite friendship with those who have broken off with me; to give to him who refuses me; that my silence should be occupied with thought; that my looking should be an admonition; and that I should command what is right.

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Q No 3 what are the different steps involved in educational administration discuss them in detail? 

Anwser:

Educational Administration is regarded as the process of integrating the appropriate human and material resources that are made available and made effective for achieving the purposes of a programme of an educational institution.

The term “Administration” doesn‟t refer to any single process or act. It is like a broad umbrella encompassing a number of processes such as: planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling and evaluating the performance. The same situation occurs in the field of educational administration. The concept of educational administration is applicable in case of an educational organisation which has certain purposes or goals to fulfill.

In order to achieve these purposes or goals, the head of the educational organisation plans carefully various programmes and activities. Here the educational organisation may be a school, college or university. The head of the school/college/university organizes these programmes and activities with co-operation from other teachers, parents and students. He/She motivates them and co- ordinates the efforts of teachers as well as directs and exercises control over them. He/She evaluates their performance and progress in achieving the purposes of the programme.

He provides feedback to them and brings modification, if required in the plans and programmes of the school or college or university. So the totality of these processes which are directed towards realizing or achieving the purposes or goals of the school/college/university is called educational administration.

1. Educational administration doesn‟t refer to any single process rather different processes or aspects constitute administration. These are planning, organizing, directing, Coordinating and evaluation
2. Educational administration is a non-profit making task.
3. Educational administration is primarily a social enterprise as it is more concerned with human resources than with material resources.
4. Educational administration is more an art than a science. The reason is that human relationship prevailed here can‟t be maintained by any set of formulae.
5. Educational administration is similar to general administration in many ways, but it is also dissimilar to general administration in many more ways.
6. Educational administration is a complex affair.

Objectives of Educational Administration:

As we know the very fact that educational administration needs integration and co-ordination of all the physical and human resources and educational elements. Besides this it requires a great efficiency with it based on human sympathy, understanding, knowledge and skill. The physical resources mainly contribute building equipment‟s and instructional materials.

The human resources include pupils, teachers, supervisors, administrators and parents. The additional elements comprise the various aspects of educational theory and practice including philosophy of education, objectives of education, curriculum, method of teaching, discipline, role of the teacher, rules and regulations etc. These elements are “parts, made into whole” and are components brought into harmonious relationship. So the purpose of doing such vital task is to fulfill different purposes which are known as the objectives of educational administration.

These are: 

1. To provide proper education to students: 

This objective seeks to mention the fact that good education doesn‟t mean education at a very high cost as is practiced in modern public schools. Rather it means the right type of education from the right type of teachers within reasonable cost. This objective also implies quantitative expansion and qualitative improvement of education.

2. To Ensure Adequate Utilization Of All Resources: 

For adequate realization of the various purposes of educational programme there is the need of ensuring adequate utilization of all available resources-human, material and financial.

3. To Ensure Professional Ethics And Professional Development Among Teachers: 

As teachers are the senior and mature human elements to accelerate the programme in time their role is highly felt in this regard. They are to be encouraged and given the facility to devise and try out innovative ideas on instruction and to participate in service education programmes. In this context, it can be visualized that educational administration should aim at developing a desire for hard work, dedication and commitment for their job among teachers.

4. To organize educational programmes for acquainting students with the art of democratic living and giving them excellent training in democratic citizenship.

5. To mobilize the community: 

Like general administration, educational administration seeks to maintain and improve the relations with the community. For this it should seek community support and co-operation for quantitative expansion, qualitative improvements, smooth and fair examination in the educational system.

6. To organize co-curricular activities effectively for developing talents of students and work efficiency of educational teachers.

7. To get the work done: 

The most important objective of administration is to get the work done effectively, efficiently and with satisfaction to the individuals and benefits to the society.

8. To prepare students for taking their places in various vocations and avenues of life.

9. To train the students in developing scientific attitude and objective outlook among them towards all aspects and activities of life.

10. To ensure qualitative improvement of education:

 Good education can be provided to students by bringing qualitative improvement in instruction. Regular supervision of teaching and guidance of teachers help to ensure quality teaching in schools.

Scope of Educational Administration: 

11. The educational administration encompasses all the levels of education in its jurisdiction.

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Q No 4 Why supervision is required in an educational institution how is it different from administration?

Answer:

What Is Educational Supervision? 

Careers in educational supervision include being a principal and could involve keeping a school running on a day-to-day basis. Find out what's required to start a career in educational supervision and programs that could prepare you for these positions. Schools offering College Administration & Leadership degrees can also be found in these popular choices.

Educational Supervision Defined Educational supervision is a term used to identify the work duties of administrative workers in education. Educational supervisors make sure the educational institution operates efficiently and within the legal requirements and rules. The purpose of this field is to make sure teachers and other faculty members are doing what they're supposed to be doing and that students are receiving the best education possible.

Elementary/Secondary School Principals

• Key Skills Leadership, problem-solving, and decision-making skills
• Similar Occupations Instructional coordinator, childcare center director, school/career counselor
• Work Schedule Full-time, sometimes on weekends and in the evening, summers included
• Licensure Some states require licensure, unless you're employed at a private school

Postsecondary Education Administrators

• Key Skills Organizational, problem-solving, and interpersonal skills
• Similar Occupations Human resources manager, training manager, administrative services manager
• Work Schedule Full-time, usually year round
• Licensure Professional licensure is not necessary, though several years of experience are preferred

Career Opportunities:

There are many career opportunities available to you in educational supervision. These positions are all administrative positions like principal, assistant principal, dean, president, director, chairperson and department head. The duties of each of these careers are similar, but each has its own unique focus.

For example, principals and assistant principals work in elementary and secondary schools. In these institutions, you would be in charge of providing leadership for students and faculty members by setting performance goals and creating mission statements. In this role, you'll regularly visit classrooms to observe teachers and students in order to formulate proper performance evaluations of the educational process in your school.

Working as a department head in a college or university is similar to being a principal. You'll focus on a specific branch and department of your school instead of the entire university. You're in charge of scheduling the classes for the department, managing professors, creating committees, coming up with budgets and addressing the concerns of students when necessary.

Educational Opportunities:

Before getting into educational supervision, you'll normally have a career as an educator or teacher first. This requires the necessary licensure, bachelor's degree and teacher training. However, when you're ready to move into an administrative position, it is ideal you pursue a master's degree or a doctoral degree. The majors for this career focus on educational leadership or education administration. These programs have classes like instruction supervision, public school law, organization and administration, administrative theory and classroom management.

To continue researching, browse degree options below for course curriculum, prerequisites and financial aid information. Or, learn more about the subject by reading the related articles below:

Educational supervision is regular supervision taking place in the context of a recognized training programme in order to determine learning needs and review progress. Patel‟s article [1] effectively evaluates postgraduate educational supervision in one UK trust. This was a mixed methods study in which educational supervisors and trainees working within a large UK trust were surveyed online about their experiences of educational supervision. In addition, observations of supervision sessions with a small group of supervisor and trainee pairs followed up by semi-structured interviews were conducted. The findings suggested methods to improve educational supervision and a framework was developed [1]. The framework illustrates the need to improve student support during educational supervision [1]

This commentary explores the importance of mentoring during educational supervision. A mentor-ship is a fortuitous relationship that fosters the development of the adult learner [2]. Educational supervision offers the unique opportunity to be an effective mentor to the student. The mentoring can be informal or more formal within the scheduled supervision meetings. Mentoring should be recognized as an important teaching activity [3]. During the initial educational supervision meetings, it is important to establish an effective relationship with the leaner and provide feedback on their current progress before offering specific guidance. Effective feedback is non-judgmental, timely and accompanied by reflection to help the learner improve [4]. The educational supervisor can then provide specific guidance to enhance academic, professional and personal development.

Firstly, with regard to academic development, the educational supervisor can discuss learning styles, progress with training and time management. It is valuable to discuss the learner‟s personal development plan to check that this is specific, relevant and realistic. The personal development plan should include any relevant courses to attend and preparation for postgraduate exams. Educational supervision also offers the opportunity for reflection on career plans as students may be considering specific speciality choices. Career choices in medicine can be challenging for the trainee and supervisors can offer expertise regarding the different specialities, preparing the curriculum vitae, application processes and requirements.

Secondly, with regard to professional development, it is important that the supervisor ensures the learner demonstrates high standards of medical professionalism. There are numerous definitions of medical professionalism provided by major medical organizations. In the UK, the Royal College of Physicians of London‟s Working Party on Medical Professionalism has defined medical professionalism succinctly as „a set of values, behaviours and relationships that underpin the trust the public has in doctors‟ with doctors being committed to integrity, compassion, altruism, continuous improvement, excellence and teamwork‟ [5]. The educational supervisor has the unique opportunity to read the workplace-based assessments of the trainee and can review the multisource feedback report and patient satisfaction reports, both of which offer information regarding the professional attributes of the trainee.

Thirdly, with regard to a trainee‟s personal development, the educational supervisor can offer pastoral support. This is particularly important for students who may be experiencing some difficulties during their training and in these circumstances the supervisor should demonstrate compassion, empathy and a non-judgemental, confidential approach. In addition, a new emerging theme in medical education is the importance of developing resilience [6]. Resilience has been described as an emotional competence and can be considered as behaviour to be acquired during training [7]. Educational supervisors can offer suggestions to develop resilience, avoid burnout and maintain a healthy work-life balance during training.

In summary, the educational supervision offers an important opportunity for effective mentoring. Educational supervisors should ensure high standards of mentoring and student support throughout the curriculum. The trainees should make best use of this support to ask questions, to discuss any concerns, to seek professional and career advice.

Simply put, management can be understood as the skill of getting the work done from others. It is not exactly same as administration, which alludes to a process of effectively administering the entire organization. The most important point that differs management from the administration is that the former is concerned with directing or guiding the operations of the organization, whereas the latter stresses on laying down the policies and establishing the objectives of the organization.

Broadly speaking, management takes into account the directing and controlling functions of the organization, whereas administration is related to planning and organizing function.

With the passage of time, the distinction between these two terms is getting blurred, as management includes planning, policy formulation, and implementation as well, thus covering the functions of administration. In this article, you will find all the substantial differences between management and administration.

Definition of Administration

The administration is a systematic process of administering the management of a business organization, an educational institution like school or college, government office or any nonprofit organization. The main function of administration is the formation of plans, policies, and procedures, setting up of goals and objectives, enforcing rules and regulations, etc.

Administration lays down the fundamental framework of an organization, within which the management of the organization functions.

The nature of administration is bureaucratic. It is a broader term as it involves forecasting, planning, organizing and decision-making functions at the highest level of the enterprise. Administration represents the top layer of the management hierarchy of the organization. These top level authorities are the either owners or business partners who invest their capital in starting the business. They get their returns in the form of profits or as a dividend.

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Q No 5 Define educational planing Write a note on different approaches to educational planning? 

Answer:

What Is Educational Planning? 

Find out how a school district develops curriculum. Get information about how policies are implemented within an educational system. Often, these processes start through research by educational planning professionals. Schools offering Education Curriculum & Instruction degrees can also be found in these popular choices.

Educational Planning Defined 

Educational planning strives to research, develop, implement and advance policies, programs and reforms within educational institutions. Educational planners might work at the local, national or international level to advance or improve education. While educational planning might center on pre-school and K-12 education, you could also work in postsecondary education as well. As an educational planner, you could work within educational institutions, government agencies, and private or not-for-profit organizations.

Educational planners typically hold graduate degrees. You might also consider becoming a licensed teacher or earning additional degrees in education. Administrators within schools or districts are commonly involved in educational planning.

Important Facts About Educational Planning

Professional Certification       Certified Education Planner

Required Education                Bachelor's degree 

Median Salary (2014)             $61,550 (for instructional coordinators)

Key Skills                               Interpersonal communication; analytical; decision-making

Career Overview:

As an educational planner, you might look at a number of issues, trends or policies that are affecting education. These factors may include cost, equality of access, new technologies, curriculum or learning and teaching methods. Some educational planners might work to help develop schools in a third-world country. You might also find yourself working with state or national agencies to shape educational standards. In addition to conducting research on educational policies, you might train and help implement a program.

Career Outlook:

Career statistics aren't available specifically for educational planners; however, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reported projected growth for related professions. The BLS indicated a growth rate of 13% for instructional coordinators during 2012-2022, while elementary, middle and high school principals could see 6% growth (www.bls.gov). The BLS indicated that this average employment growth is due in part to a need to fill positions due to retirement.

Graduate Degree Programs:

 Educational policy and planning, educational administration and policy, or similar programs are the more common graduate degree programs available to prepare you for a career as an educational planner. Often, programs are multi-disciplinary in nature, blending coursework in education, sociology, political science and economics. Typically, curricula are based heavily in designing and conducting research. In addition to local, state and national education policy and planning, graduate programs might also include topics in international education.

1 Social Demand Approach:

 This approach was used in the Robbins Committee Report on Higher Education in Britain. In India too, this approach is a popular one while opening new schools and colleges in particular

• To estimate the proportion of students completing school education and are likely to enter into higher education. 
• To estimate how many of these successful school leaving students would actually apply for admission to colleges. 
• To determine how many of the applicants should be given admission to higher education. 
• To determine the length and duration of the study.

Thus, the major issue involved in this approach is to forecast future demands for seats keeping in mind social and educational trends as well as demographic changes. The underlying assumption in this approach is that expansion of education is beneficial to the economy and thus, additional expenditure on education would not create a burden too heavy to bear.

This approach is more prevalent in those societies which favour traditional cultural values, where decisions are taken on the basis of public opinions (in a fragile polity and sometimes in a democracy) and in societies where the social environment is generally pessimistic in nature.

2. Social Justice Approach:

This approach emphasizes justice to the disadvantaged sections of society and is based on Article 45 of the Indian Constitution. This approach is aimed at making special provisions for the socially, economically and educationally disadvantaged communities for a longer duration. This includes opening Ashram schools for tribal areas, special concessions and scholarships, incentives and relaxation.

3. Rate of Returns Approach:

According to this approach, investment in education should take place in such a way that the returns from the investment are equal to the returns from other kinds of investment of capital, e.g., investment in industry. This principle is known as „equi-marginal returns‟ in economic theory and could be extended to educational sector.

This approach treats education as an investment in human capital and uses rate of returns as a criterion in allocation of financial resources. The approach implies that if the rate of return is low, expenditure on education should be curtailed.

However, in reality, it is difficult to apply this approach to education due to problems associated with measuring rate of returns in education.

An educated person‟s earnings or rate of returns depend upon his/her innate intelligence, parental socio-economic status, motivation and aspirations. Hence, it is not easy to attribute the rate of returns only to education acquired. Hence, this approach is least frequently applied to education.

4. Manpower Planning Approach:

In this method, the general demand for and the capacity of supply of human resources in different streams of and at different levels of the educational sector are estimated.

The approach asserts that the system of education produces the right quality of human resources with desirable knowledge, attitudes and skills in the right numbers and thus, education is directly linked with economic development.

The application of the manpower planning approach depends on these factors:

• An appraisal and analysis of the existing employment conditions and the system of education,
• Planning the system of education vis-a-vis the manpower needs of the economy, and
• Using the financial resources (which are limited) in an optimum way so as to fulfill the demands of the employment sector without incurring wastage on account of unemployment.
• Making an appraisal of the number of students enrolled, the number of existing teachers and their qualifications, enrollment in teacher education institutions (availability of future teachers), as well as the existing number of school buildings, equipment, infrastructure and other facilities.
• The requirements of the employers regarding occupational and/ or professional qualifications for employees, their levels of training and abilities should also be assessed.

The manpower planning approach takes note of the fact that the teaching profession requires approximately 60% of the highly qualified human resources of a country which competes with the demand for manpower in other economic sectors.

A detailed projection of the demand for human resources is difficult due to the uncertainty of productivity trends. Some developed countries such as Norway, France and Sweden estimate their future manpower needs so as to meet the demands of the economy whereas others such as Great Britain estimate the numbers to be educated on the basis of students‟ demands.

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